Countries for which detailed data were unreliable or not available were not included. These are typically individuals (consumers) and SMEs (see Box4.7 on the conflict between farmers and ATPs). Cost. 16. 65-74, http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/up.v1i2.627. [93] CIGI and Ipsos (2014), 2014 CIGI-Ipsos Global Survey on Internet Security and Trust, http://www.cigionline.org/internet-survey-2014 (accessed on 5February2019). Each site in a Distributed Database is capable of accessing and processing local data as well as remote data. These common formats may enable syntactic interoperability, i.e. [27] G7 (2016), Outcomes of the G7 ICT Ministers Meeting in Takamatsu, Kagawa, http://www.soumu.go.jp/joho_kokusai/g7ict/english/about.html (accessed on 1October2018). The Critical Path Institute and the Clinical Data Interchange Standards Consortium, for instance, released their Alzheimers disease Therapeutic Area Standard (SDTM AD/Mild Cognitive Impairment User Guide) to facilitate analysis and learning from clinical studies for treatment or risk reduction (OECD, 2014[43]; OECD, 2015[44]). Risk management assumes that there is always some level of risk associated with carrying out an activity and that risk is not a binary concept. Privacy and IPRs and other legitimate commercial and non-commercial interests need to be protected, otherwise incentives to contribute data and to invest in data-driven innovation may be undermined, in addition to the risks of direct and indirect harm to right holders, including data subjects. [65] Scassa,T. (2018), Data Ownership. Free riding is sometimes the economic and social rationale for providing enhanced access to data. The case of Cambridge Analytica is just one of many occurrences where data are re-used in a different context in violation with agreed terms and conditions. [15] Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (UK) (2018). Some authors have therefore suggested replacing the term ownership with stewardship (Scofield, 1998; Chisholm, 2011). In other words, where organisations and individuals cannot recuperate a sufficient level of the return on their data-related investments, for instance through revenues arising from granting and facilitating data access and sharing against fees, there is a high risk that data access and sharing will not occur at a sufficient level. [35] European Commission (2018), European Big Data Hackathon 2017, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cros/EU-BD-Hackathon_en (accessed on 24October2018). In the context of privacy protection, the need for a risk-based approach is increasingly being recognised. (2015), A European Perspective on the Economics of Big Data. In the case of organisations, these risks can negatively affect incentives to invest and innovate. (2018). Assuming some kind of legal ownership rights of data subjects over their personal data may be over-interpreting the nature of privacy protection frameworks. 5. [11] OECD (2015), Health Data Governance: Privacy, Monitoring and Research, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264244566-en. (2014), Agricultural Firms, Farm Groups Strike Deal on Crop Data, http://www.wsj.com/articles/agricultural-firms-farm-groups-strike-deal-on-crop-data-1415854870. You can then use the processed data for analysis, analytics, intelligence, etc. Pros and Cons of Big Data - Understanding the Cons. Despite the recognition that digital security issues should be addressed through a risk-based approach, many stakeholders continue to adopt an approach that leverages nearly exclusively technological solutions to create a secure digital environment or perimeter to protect data. This framework has been adopted by the ABS, several other Australian government agencies and statistical organisations such as the Office of National Statistics (United Kingdom) and Statistics New Zealand. In order to balance these benefits with the risks and enhance trust in data sharing and re-use, the issues paper on the DS&R legislation (Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet [Australia], 2018[1]) proposes a number of institutional arrangements, including: The Office of the National Data Commissioner (NDC) will provide oversight and regulation of the new data-sharing and release framework, including monitoring and reporting on the operation of the framework and enforcing accompanying legislation. It discusses in particular whether enhanced access and sharing can facilitate the interconnection and interaction of distinct social and information systems through interoperability. 153, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2017.01.023. [69] Bunge,J. 1. Safe Settings: Does the access environment prevent unauthorised use? This allows data custodians to place appropriate controls, not just on the data itself, but on the manner in which data are accessed. [101] OECD (2011), The evolving privacy landscape: 30 years after the OECD Privacy Guidelines, OECD Digital Economy Papers, No. This may require reducing unjustified barriers to cross-border data flows. [14] Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (UK) (2018), Guidance Data Ethics Framework, http://www.gov.uk/government/publications/data-ethics-framework/data-ethics-framework (accessed on 1October2018). 10(2) TRIPS (www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/other_treaties/text.jsp?file_id=305907, accessed 5 February 2019). 1/2, pp. [24] Australian Bureau of Statistics (2017). The pursuit of the benefits of EASD therefore needs to be balanced against the costs and the legitimate national, public and private interests, in particular the rights and interests of the stakeholders involved (the protection of their privacy, IPRs, and national security). The risks of loss of control are multiplied where the data are further shared downstream across multiple tiers, in particular when these tiers are located across multiple jurisdictions.11. This would enable them to assess which types of data should be opened and to what degree, in which context and how, considering the potential economic and social benefits and risks for all stakeholders. Copyrights stimulate creativity by assuring individuals and businesses, large and small, that the original, expressive material they create will not be reproduced, adapted, communicated to the public, displayed, distributed or performed without their permission or otherwise used in a manner that violates the exclusive rights of the copyright owners.. They include most notably risks of violating contractual and socially agreed terms of data re-use, and thus risks of acting against the reasonable expectations of users. Encouraging the provision of data through coherent incentive mechanisms and sustainable business models while acknowledging the limitations of (data) markets. The following subsections focus on i) the risks of violation of agreed terms of data re-use, which goes hand in hand with ii) the increasing loss of control of individuals and organisations over their data, and iii)the increasing limitations and costs of anonymisation through stronger capabilities to infer information not intended to be shared. As a result, there are little incentives to share data, including with third parties, and where data-sharing arrangements exist, they may be perceived as unfair. While essential facilities issues do arise in purely private, unregulated contexts, there is a tendency for them to arise more commonly in contexts where the owner/controller of the essential facility is subject to economic regulation or is state-owned or otherwise state-related. Major ATPs such as John Deere, DuPont Pioneer and Monsanto have recognised this trend when they started taking advantage of the Internet of Things (IoT) by integrating sensors with their latest equipment. Examples include supervised research data centres, where authorised researchers analyse data within a physically secure location; and secure remote data access services, where authorised researchers enter a secure portal (OECD, 2013[100]; OECD, 2016[10]). Fostering data-related infrastructures and skills would not only help assure that all can benefit from enhanced access and sharing. 11. Commons are collective goods, in which stakeholders have common interests, and which are characterised by the governance mechanisms surrounding their production and consumption. One important aspect is trust in the objectivity of the data. 2. It can also prevent stakeholders from participating in data-sharing arrangements. [34] US General Services Administration (2018), About Challenge.gov, https://www.challenge.gov/about/ (accessed on 1October2018). For Luxembourg data are 2015 instead of 2011. According to Sonys executives, this data breach cost the company at least USD 171 million. There is a mind-blowing amount of hype generated for the future of Data Science in the modern generation. [12] The Expert Group on Data Ethics (2018), Data for the Benefit of the People: Recommendations from the Danish Expert Group on Data Ethics, https://eng.em.dk/media/12209/dataethics-v2.pdf. [89] Marcus,G. and E.Davis (2014), Eight (no, nine!) These issues are interrelated. [100] OECD (2013), New Data for Understanding the Human Condition: International Perspectives, OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/sti/sci-tech/new-data-for-understanding-the-human-condition.pdf. [45] DTP (n.d.), Data Transfer Project, https://datatransferproject.dev/ (accessed on 1October2018). The question of data ownership was central to this discussion. of a significant volume of information by an organization intended for query and analysis rather than for the processing of transactions. As stated already in the OECD (1985[25]) Declaration on Transborder Data Flows, these flows acquire an international dimension, known as Transborder Data Flows, and enable trade between countries and global competition among actors in data markets, and they can help strengthen collective commitment and efforts across borders to support greater public-sector transparency, reduce corruption and contribute to economic growth as highlighted in the 2015 G20 Open Data Principles for Anti-Corruption (G20, 2015[26]). The risk of digital security incidents is growing with the intensity of data use (OECD, 2017[3]). [7] Hern,A. and D.Pegg (2018), Facebook fined for data breaches in Cambridge Analytica scandal, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/jul/11/facebook-fined-for-data-breaches-in-cambridge-analytica-scandal. There have been calls in the past for enhancing transparency in data markets, partly motivated by empirical work showing that high levels of transparency in markets are found to be associated with lower risk and costs of capital and higher trading volumes or liquidity (PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2001[56]; Bhattacharya, Daouk and Welker, 2003[57]). [88] BBC (2014), Sony Pictures computer system hacked in online attack, BBC News, http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-30189029. The right to data portability in the GDPR is composed of three different rights: i) the right to receive (without hindrance from the data controller) data concerning data subject which he/she has provided; ii) the right to transmit (without hindrance from the data controller) those data to another controller; and iii) the right to have the personal data transmitted directly from one controller to another. (2017[39]) note: Through its focus on data, the open data literature reinforces a perspective that, for example, mapping tools are ubiquitous and easy-to-use. Overall, 65% of respondents have taken at least one of these actions. Hadoop is open-source and uses cost-effective commodity hardware which provides a cost-efficient model, unlike traditional Relational databases that require expensive hardware and high-end processors to deal with Big Data. [81] Bakhoum,M. etal. On 1 May 2018, in response to recommendations in the Productivity Commissions Data Availability and Use Inquiry report, the Australian government committed to reforming its national data-governance framework with the development of new DS&R legislation. The different legal frameworks do not preclude each other; in fact, they overlap. It was motivated by the recognition that portability and interoperability are central to innovation. 3, pp. Interpretability reflects the ease with which the user may understand and properly use and analyse the data. The availability of metadata plays an important role here, as they provide for example the definitions of concepts, target populations, variables and terminology, underlying the data, and information describing the limitations of the data, if any. And 5. [59] Brill,J. [80] European Union (1996), Directive 96/9/EC of The European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:31996L0009. In the longer term, these initiatives could be lifted to the international level, since most challenges relating to data is by its nature international. Access to this content in this format requires a current subscription or a prior purchase. Data Sharing and Reuse in the Long Tail of Science and Technology. What is the disadvantage of data processing? ASSINGMENT: 2 LECTURER: MR DUBE DUE: 11 October 2017 Describe batch and real time processing, giving their advantages and disadvantages as a data processing system. [21] OECD (2015), Recommendation of the Council on Digital Security Risk Management for Economic and Social Prosperity, OECD, Paris, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0415. Confidence by users is built over time. The OECD (2010[36]) notes that [g]enerally, information exchanges among competitors may fall into three different scenarios under competition rules: i) as a part of a wider price fixing or market sharing agreement whereby the exchange of information functions as a facilitating factor; ii) in the context of broader efficiency enhancing co-operation agreements such as joint venture, standardisation or R&D agreements; or iii) as a stand-alone practice, whereby the exchange of information is the only co-operation among competitors. [50] Wallis,J. etal. In April 2017, the Group of Twenty (G20) Ministers18 responsible for the digital economy also recognised in the G20 Digital Economy Ministerial Declaration the importance of promoting interoperability between privacy frameworks of different countries (G20, 2017[32]). Some important disadvantages of the file processing system are as follows: 1. The increasing social and economic importance of data often leads to the question about who owns data. These techniques have glaring disadvantages. 7. Data portability is therefore often compared to number portability a concept that is now an established part of OECD countrys telecommunications policy although data portability is much more complex so that comparisons remain mainly theoretical. Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Enhancing Access to and Sharing of Data: Reconciling Risks and Benefits for Data Re-use across Societies, (Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet [Australia], 2018[1]), (Information Commissioner's Office, 2018[4]), (The Expert Group on Data Ethics, 2018[12]), (Ministry of Industry, Business and Financial Affairs [Denmark], 2019[13]), (Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (UK), 2018[14]), (Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (UK), 2018[15]), (Greenaway, Zabolotniuk and Levin, 2012[23]), (US General Services Administration, 2018[34]), (Department for Business Innovation and Skills (UK), 2012[37]), Bhattacharya, Daouk and Welker, 2003[57]), (Federal Trade Commission (US), 2014[58]), www.oecd.org/competition/abuse/1920021.pdf, www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/other_treaties/text.jsp?file_id=305907. According to the Harvey Nash/KPMG CIO Survey, big data and analytics are top of the list of critical skills shortages (Rae, 2018[38]). Organised crime groups may target valuable assets that they can sell on illegal markets. Data-related skills are not only a condition for effective re-use. The extent to which the data itself, and separately, its arrangement or compilation, or its expression as information, are protected depends on the definition of data and in some cases remains controversial (Determann, 2018[67]; Scassa, 2018[65]).

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